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Fluoroscopic Angiography Assessment, Protocols, and Interpretation

Excerpt 摘录
Fluoroscopy-guided catheter angiography is an interventional procedure that uses percutaneous access of arteries with needles and catheters to inject contrast for vessel opacification. This procedure may be diagnostic or therapeutic. While some providers use angiography as a general term to include visualization of arteries, veins, or lymphatics, this article uses the term angiography to refer solely to the visualization of arteries, also known as arteriography. The terms venography and lymphangiography refer to veins and lymphatic vessels, respectively. Nevertheless, the principles behind angiography are widely applicable to other vessel types.

Sven Ivar Seldinger’s discovery of a technique in 1953 which described the substitution of a needle or trocar by a percutaneous catheter, since called the Seldinger technique, allowed for the possibility of catheter angiography and the birth of Interventional Radiology as a specialty. The following decades gave rise to several non-invasive angiographic advancements, including computed tomographic and magnetic resonance angiography.

Catheter angiography remains the gold-standard for a wide variety of pathologies. Today, catheter angiography is used to interrogate arteries in nearly every part of the human body, including the brain, neck, heart, chest, abdomen, pelvis, and extremities. Applications of catheter angiography are immense and include identification of arteriovenous malformations, aneurysms, atherosclerosis, embolisms, dissections, congenital abnormalities, stenosis, hemorrhage, and other arterial pathologies. Angiography may help guide implantation of stents, grafts, or provide assessment before surgery, chemoembolization, or internal radiation therapy. Fluoroscopy is undoubtedly the most important tool for an interventionalist. Herein, the general principles of fluoroscopy-guided catheter angiography are described, with a focus on the appropriate use of fluoroscopy-guidance for the diagnosis of arterial pathology.

[FROM]
Brian Covello 1, Brett McKeon
In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan.
2023 Feb 13.
Affiliations Expand
PMID: 33760526 Bookshelf ID: NBK568767
[/FROM]

angiography 血管造影
arteriography 动脉造影
venography 静脉造影
lymphangiography 淋巴管造影

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偏侧舞蹈症:指局限于一侧肢体的不自主的舞蹈样动作,最常见的病因是脑血管病,通常是出血或梗死损害了丘脑底核及其与苍白球之间的通路。少部分小舞蹈病或亨廷顿病也可表现为偏身舞蹈症。脑血管病引起者常多发于中老年,急性或亚急性起病,可伴有不同程度的偏瘫或在偏瘫恢复过程中出现舞蹈症状。主要针对病因治疗。

外文名 antiphospholipid syndrome
就诊科室 风湿免疫科
多发群体 女性发病率明显多于男性
常见病因 由带有阴性电荷磷脂催化的凝血瀑布反应
常见症状 1.血管栓塞2.流产3.非特异性表现4.恶性抗磷脂综合征(CAPS)

病因
由于在APL阳性的人群中只有部分患者出现临床表现,故APS的发生还与其他因素有关。有研究提示这些抗体可抑制由带有阴性电荷磷脂催化的凝血瀑布反应。这些反应包括因子X的激活,凝血酶原-凝血酶的转换,蛋白C的激活,以及激活的蛋白C所致的因子Va的失活。APL抑制蛋白C激活或者中和对因子Va失活的作用,可使病人处于“血栓前状态”。已经证明抗心磷脂抗体(ACL)与磷脂酰丝氨酸的交叉反应使之与血小板结合并激活血小板,也可引起血栓形成。其他可能的机理还包括血小板合成的血栓素增加,抑制前列腺环素的合成,以及刺激由内皮细胞产生组织因子。
在APL介导的血栓形成过程中,一种名为β2糖蛋白1(β2GP1)的血浆蛋白很受关注。目前认为APL可通过中和β2GP1的抗凝作用引起血栓形成。
自身免疫性APL通过结合β2GP1或其他磷脂结合蛋白而与带负电荷的磷脂结合,为β2GP1依赖性APL。然而,梅毒、非梅毒螺旋体、伯氏疏螺旋体、人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)、钩端螺旋体及寄生虫等感染,以及药物和恶性肿瘤诱导形成的抗磷脂抗体通常能与磷脂直接结合,为β2GP1非依赖性抗体。

临床表现
APS的临床表现从无症状APL阳性(无血栓史或病态妊娠史)到恶性APS(数天内发生广泛血栓),程度不一。
1.血管栓塞
可以出现任何组织或器官的动、静脉和小血管血栓。常常发生在少见部位、发病年龄轻、反复发作。
2.流产
典型的APS患者流产多发生在妊娠的10周以后,但也有早于10周者,后者更多见于染色体或其他基因缺陷。APS患者早期3个月妊娠多正常,以后发生胎儿生长缓慢和羊水减少,还可出现子痫和先兆子痫。
3.非特异性表现
网状青斑、血小板减少、自身免疫性溶血性贫血、心脏瓣膜病(瓣膜赘生物或增厚)、弥漫肺泡出血、肺动脉高压、多发性硬化样综合征、舞蹈症或其他脊髓病等。
4.恶性抗磷脂综合征(CAPS)
这是一种罕见的突发的威胁生命的并发症,于数天内出现中、小动脉广泛血栓(尽管使用了足量抗凝治疗),引起脑卒中,心脏、肝、肾上腺、肾和肠梗死,以及外周组织坏疽。

检查
狼疮抗凝物、ACL、或抗β2GP1抗体阳性,有助于确诊。

诊断
2004年修订的APS分类诊断标准(Sapporo):
1.临床标准
(1)血管栓塞 任何组织或器官的动、静脉和小血管发生血栓≥1次。
(2)异常妊娠
1)≥1次发生于妊娠10周或10周以上无法解释的形态学正常的胎儿死亡,或2)≥1次发生于妊娠34周之前因严重的先兆子痫、子痫或者明确的胎盘功能不全所致的形态学正常的新生儿早产,或3)≥3次发生于妊娠10周之前的无法解释的自发性流产,必须排除母体解剖或激素异常以及双亲染色体异常。
2.实验室标准
(1)狼疮抗凝物至少2次阳性,间隔至少12周。
(2)中/高滴度IgG/IgM型ACL至少检测2次,间隔至少12周。
(3)IgG/IgM型抗β2GP1抗体至少检测2次,间隔至少12周。
诊断APS必须符合至少1项临床标准和1项实验室标准。

预后
原发性APS患者长期预后较差。肺动脉高压、神经病变、心肌缺血、肾病、肢体坏疽和恶性抗磷脂综合征患者预后较差。
尽管已经进行预防,APS患者仍可能发生严重围手术期并发症,因为手术时发生血栓的危险增加。因此在任何手术前均应制定明确的应对策略,采取药物学和物理学的抗凝措施,尽量减少无抗凝的时间,尽量减少血管内操作和检测。

知识来源链接百科